Albania is a country with a rich cultural and musical heritage and indeed the unique value of Albanian Iso-polyphonic singing was proclaimed by UNESCO “A Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on November 25, 2005” (Tole, Albanian folk iso-polyphony, n.d.). It is this rich cultural and musical heritage that this paper will examine.
The traditional music of Albania has been kept alive from the north to the south of the country and, as World Music Central notes, “[in] the last few decades, the modest rise of cultural tourism and the growing interest of the research community in this unique folk tradition has contributed to the revival of Albanian iso-polyphony” (World Music Central, n.d.). Historian Fitim Çaushi is, however, not so confident about the future of Albanian Iso-polyphonic music and believes research, such as this paper, can be instrumental in preserving it whilst it adapts to changing cultural and social contexts. “It’s in doubt because the microenvironment that was its source is disappearing. The villages are disappearing, and the kroi (waters, streams) of the villages where people gathered is no more. The dinners are no more, as are the celebrations (gosti) that happened in Laberi that were filled with singing… In the end, I’m very grateful for all the British research, for what you are doing.”
History and Background to Albania and Albanian traditional folk music
History of Albania
To understand the evolution and development of Albanian traditional folk music it is important to consider the complex and often troubled history of Albania that has been instrumental in the development of its musical culture and traditions.
Situated in the southwest of the Balkan Peninsula, Albania borders Montenegro, Kosovo, Macedonia and Greece (World Culture Encyclopedia, n.d.). Albania is a small country with a current population of just under 2,900,000 (World population review, 2023).
Originally settled by the Illyrians of Northern Greece over 2000 years ago, Albania was conquered and ruled by the Romans from 167 BCE and became part of the Byzantine empire when the Roman empire split into two parts in 395CE.
The Middle Ages saw Albania invaded and ruled by the Normans in the 11th century; Venice Southern Italy and Sicily in the 13th Century; Serbia in the 14th Century; and Turkey in the 15th Century. Turkish rule continued until in 1912, afraid Albania would be divided up between members of the Balkan League, Albanian leaders met in Vlora in the south of the country and on 28 November 1912 and declared independence. Freedom was however short-lived in Albania as Ahmet Zogu, who had been Albanian premier since 1922, lost the election in 1924 and left Albania. Later in 1924 with Yugoslav help, he returned to Tirana, Albania’s capital city, and overthrew the government declaring himself dictator until 1928 when he made himself King Zog of Albania. The 2nd world war saw both Italy and Germany occupying Albania until 1944, the start of the totalitarian communist era which did not start to break down until 1990. (Lambert, 2022)
Through difficult years of transition to democracy, whilst the Albanian government became less authoritarian during this period, it was not until 2005 that democratic government came to Albania. (Democracy International, 2006)
Albanian polyphonic folk music
Although Albania’s traditional folk music is very characteristic of the country, it has been not investigated to the same extent as many other European folk musical traditions despite being a significant part of the cultural and artistic heritage of the country. This music exists alongside other Balkan and Mediterranean folk music but has its own very characteristic style. (Folk Cloud, n.d.)
Albanian iso-polyphony was proclaimed in 2005, a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity and inscribed on UNESCO’s representative list in 2008. (Tole, Albanian folk iso-polyphony, n.d.) It is worth noting here that music historian Fitim Çaushi maintains that UNESCO’s characterization of Albanian polyphonic music as ‘Iso-polyphonic music’ is incorrect stating in my December 2022 interview with him in Tirana “Polyphony has the Iso included. You don’t put Iso before polyphony. Like Aleksander Peci said, “you don’t say head-human, you say human and imply that the head is there”. (Çaushi, Albanian polyphonic music, 2022). However, for the purpose of clarity, I will be using the term ‘iso-polyphonic’ to describe the polyphonic music that is from the Southern Albanian areas of Toskeria and Laberia and it is this music that was inscribed by UNESCO in 2008.
Origins
Ethnomusicologists and polyphonic music historians do not agree on the origins of Albanian polyphonic music. This is possibly because it wasn’t until the middle of the 20th century that Albanian polyphony was brought to the attention of scholars by Albanian ethnomusicologist and musician Ramadan Sokoli (Jordania, 2006).
In discussing the origins of Albanian iso-polyphonic music Professor Vasil Tole states “The term iso is related to the ison of Byzantine church music and refers to the drone accompanying polyphonic singing” (Tole, Albanian folk iso-polyphony, n.d.) suggesting that what he describes as Albanian iso-polyphonic music’s origins are rooted in the development of Byzantine church music in the 5th century CE whilst Prof. Ramadan Sokoli, in his lecture at the University of Bologna and Venice, in 2001 stated “Since the prevailing opinion in musicology is that the ancient Greeks and Romans did not sing polyphonic songs, the question has been raised whether the polyphony of the Balkans is of ancient origin and has it survived to our time” (Çaushi, Mercenaries of “isopolyphony” in action, 2022). Çaushi himself states in my interview with him “The problem of the origin and place of polyphony, in general, is still not solved currently on a worldwide scale. However, the studies that have been done so far by the professors at the institute of popular culture, … present the Lab polyphony [of Southern Albania] as an original Albanian polyphony, especially the polyphonic music with 4 voices, because there [is] no other polyphonic [singing] in any of the other regions of the Balkans that have 4 voices… The process of evolution of polyphony then probably evolved in 3 or 4 voices, however, the one we have today is completely Albanian created by the people of that region.” (Çaushi, Albanian polyphonic music, 2022). An alternative point of view on the origin of Albanian iso-polyphonic music is put forward by Papakristo who writes “The origins of Albanian iso-polyphonic music can be traced back to the Illyrian period when the ancient Illyrian tribes that inhabited the Balkans used vocal music as a means of communication and expression” (Papakristo, 2011).
On balance it seems that Papkristo’s view is most likely correct, and this is supported by Çaushi in his book “If I die, lament me”. Çaushi quotes Breseis from book XIX of Homer’s Iliad “She wept as she spoke, and the women joined in her lament-making for Patroclus and their own sorrows” (Homer, 800 BCE) which he then goes on to interpret as follows “We have a clear traditional lamentation. Two thousand and eight hundred years ago, the Homeric epics inform us, that Briseis “spoke crying”, so the lines with which she weeps for Patroclus, are accompanied by cryings [sic], crying which might have been organized in a musical way, which is proved by the accompanied choir of women, who weep after her. Papkristo’s view is further supported by Phd Ermir Nika in his paper “Polyphony, the Memory of Earth’s Voice” where he writes “the polyphonic song of the Balkan peoples represents an early musical culture, pre-Byzantine” (Nika, 2020)
Interestingly different areas of Albania and ethnic groups have developed their own variations of polyphonic music in what is a relatively small country. Albania has a total area of just 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi) just 11.8% the size of the U.K. (Nations Encyclopedia, n.d.) and is traditionally divided (by the river Shkumbin) into two roughly equal parts – North Albania and South Albania. This division not only divides Albania geographically into North and South but it also has some cultural implications. Shetuni states in his ‘Introduction to Albanian music’ “In rural Albanian traditional music, the Shkumbin River
stands as the dividing line between monophony and polyphony. Monophonic rural traditional music is found primarily in Ghegëri [the north of Albania], while polyphonic rural traditional music exists primarily in Toskëri [the south]” (Shetuni, 2011). However, traditional Albanian polyphonic singing is performed in both areas, by the Ghegs of northern Albania and the Tosks and Labs living in the south of the country. (World Music Central, n.d.). Typically, most villages and towns have a polyphonic band that performs at social events such as weddings, harvest feasts, funerals, religious celebrations, festivals, etc. (Ballkan world music management, n.d.)
Northern Albanian Folk Music
Northern Albania, also known as Ghegeria, is best known for its distinctive variety of sung epic poetry. Many of these are about Skanderbeg, a legendary 15th-century warrior who led the struggle against the Turks”. These traditions are a form of oral history for the Ghegs, and also “preserve and inculcate moral codes and social values”. (Folkworld, n.d.). However, the folk songs of Ghegaria are not just epic tales of heroism and honour. Ghegeria has its own style of polyphonic music which is relatively rare and found mostly in the west of northern Albania among the high mountain ranges. The region shares its singing tradition with other areas of the central Balkans such as Macedonia and Kosovo where according to Jane Sugarman, in her section on Albanian music in the ‘The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music’, women in Ghegeria, Southwestern Kosovo and western Macedonia also sing two-voiced polyphony “Against a narrow-ranged melody sung by a soloist, one or more women sing a lower vocal line that sometimes duplicates pitches of the melody and sometimes strikes a pitch a second or third below it… [and] men have their own polyphonic styles of singing, consisting of a melodic line sung against a drone” (Rice, Porter, & Goertzen, 2000). Nika confirms this polyphonic tradition “The four regions of southern Albania – Lalëria Myzeqe, Tusks, Chameria and Labria – have polyphonic songs as part of their culture. A related form of polyphonic singing is found in northern Albania, in the Peshkopi area; Polog, Tetovo, Kicevo and Gostivar in North Macedonia; and the Highlands in northern Albania and southern Montenegro.” (Nika, 2020). Fitim Caushi in my interview with him relates his own experience of Gheg polyphonic singing at a mortuary ceremony “I have been personally in one of those and was astonished by how an old lady cried her in-laws and the other women made a backing vocal with the last syllable of her work and an “oiii’ in the end, characteristic of the second voice” (Çaushi, Albanian polyphonic music, 2022)
Most Gheg traditional folk music however is described as monodic. Kennedy describes monody as “The term Monody is sometimes used as a synonym for monophonic music or for accompanying solo songs. The correct use of the term, however, is to describe a particular kind of accompanied solo song which developed around 1600 as a reaction against the 16th-century polyphonic style. Monophonic music, as opposed to polyphony and homophony, is music which has a single melodic line, without harmonies or melody in
counterpoint. This is the oldest type of music, being the only type performed in ancient Greece in the early church music” (Kennedy, 2005). This music is often accompanied by instruments as noted by Shetuni in his ‘Albanian Traditional Music: An Introduction’ (Shetuni, 2011), instruments such as the deff, a type of tambourine that is commonly used in Gheg music and played by singers to provide rhythmic accompaniment, the sharki, a traditional Albanian wind instrument similar to a clarinet and the lahuta, a traditional Albanian one-stringed lute (Duka, 2018). This monodic music has a modal/tonal system that at times is diatonic and at other times chromatic. Shetuni characterises these tonal systems as follows “The diatonic modal/tonal system means that musical structure is made up of two semitones and five whole tones. In Gheg traditional music, diatonic modes/scales are of minor character… The chromatic modal/tonal system consists of a musical structure in which certain pitches alternate by means of an accidental, i.e., they go up or down by a semitone… The main distinction between the diatonic and chromatic modal/tonal systems rests in the way that the semitones are rendered. In the diatonic system, semitones do not follow one another, whereas, in the chromatic system, they may follow each other.” (Shetuni, 2011)
Northern Albanian traditional folk music varies in style across the different geographic regions of the area. Kustrim Jakupi states in his paper to the International Conference on Literature, Linguistics and Interdisciplinary Studies “Based on the geography, the largest extension of the villages is in the highest (mountainous) areas and based on the fact that these areas have been less influenced, we conclude that they are more original… [however] chromatic influenced [folk music] from outside is much more present in the civic music tradition [and] northern civic songs in the Gheg musical dialect are rooted the chromatic brought by the Orient, namely by the so-called Turkish or Arabic makams” (Jakupi, 2015). These makams are melodic progression patterns within musical scales founded on particular orders of intervals (Turkish Cultural Foundation, n.d.).
In the Main Highlands of northwest Albania, this is where Gheg songs often tell stories of epic events and heroes (appendix1.1) with the performers sometimes dancing as well as singing. Shetuni notes “Overall, songs in the Main Highlands are quite slow in tempo and convey a low level of energy. This serves to create an epic and distant impression… melodies are usually composed of a few notes often completely recitative” (Shetuni, 2011). These folk songs are often based on Epic Poems with many of them about the struggles of the Albanian people and their history, as well as of honour, hospitality, treachery and revenge. Nicola Scaldaferri backs this up in her research on Albanian Epic Songs “Epic songs are a fundamental part of Albanian cultural identity [and] the practice of epic singing persists most actively in the {mountainous] Gheg area” (Scaldaferri N, 2016). In contrast, in the Kukesi area of northern Albania, “Kukes wedding songs are characterised by lyrical melodies that express warm emotions and happiness. The monodic melodies of [these] wedding songs frequently exhibit feelings of optimism, expressing intimate emotions.” (Mahony, 2011). Further to the south of Ghegeria in the Mat region “it is characterized and distinguished by lyrical topics that centre around everyday events (e.g., work, love) rather than historic and heroic themes that have a mythical flavour. This is reflected in the melody, which takes on a cheerful and straightforward nature” (Shetuni, 2011).
The other areas of Ghegeria – Mirdite; Diber; the Small Highlands; they too have their own different styles. Shetuni in comparing the songs of the small highlands to that of the main highlands says “Melodies contain more notes, singing is less often recitative, tempo is faster, and meter/rhythm is more often complex and measurable. Overall, songs are less monotonous. Another difference rests in that singers in the Small Highlands perform at a high register or pitch”. When describing the songs of the Mirdite region Shetuni says “Common features [with the highland areas] include wide-spread use of the call and response singing technique and in general an epic and distant feel to the music. The style of Mirditë diverges from those of the Highlands in the absence of the lahutë – i.e., the legendary heroic epic is not performed here [and] meter/rhythm is complex, attesting to a
higher level of sophistication”.
And, finally, of the Diber region “This style is distinguished from the other Gheg musical styles by a more melodically rich and sophisticated. Instruments are used widely, the most popular of which are: the whistle, shepherd’s flute, zurna, çifteli, and drums. Meter/rhythm is complex, with a tempo that tends to be faster paced” (Shetuni, 2011).
One other style of Gheg singing of note is ‘Kânge Kreshnike’, which translates as ‘songs of the frontier warriors’. “These songs are usually performed by a singer who accompanies himself with a one-string bowed instrument, called ‘lahuta’ in Albanian. The poems feature legendary characters, dealing most often with the deeds of two brothers, Muji and Halil, their friends and relatives, or other heroes as they struggle against their enemies and encounter the presence of supernatural elements” (Scaldaferri N, 2016). These songs “include both sung lines and rhythmically recited songs…[where] the method of performing lines—whether sung or recited—results in corresponding changes in the meter of versification” (Scaldaferri N, 2016). This style of northern Albanian music was extensively documented by Albert Lord when he was based in Shkoder, Ghegaria in 1937. The digitised manuscripts of Lord’s research featuring more than one hundred of these epic ‘songs of the frontier warriors’ form part of the Millman Parry Collection of Oral Literature. (Lord, 1937) and an example of this ‘Kânge Kreshnike’, style of lyricism can be found in appendix 1.2.
Southern Albanian Folk Music
Southern Albania is home to the iso-polyphonic music that is synonymous with the folk music traditions of Albania. This music exists in two dialects, Tosk and Lab. The Toskmusical dialect exists in the geographic regions of Toskëri, Myzeqe, and Chamëri. The Lab
dialect is performed in the region of Labëria. However, despite the sub-divisions of the southern areas of Albania, the south is usually referred to as just two sub-regions, Toskëri (Tosk), and Labëria (Lab) which how I will refer to them.
Albanian polyphonic music and iso-polyphonic music has a strong oral tradition and has been passed from generation to generation and has undoubtably been influenced by the culture and music of invading and occupying nations. Nettl notes in his book ‘Folk and Traditional Music of Western Continents’ “musical influences have come from sources as diverse as the chants of the Byzantine Church, the pentatonic tunes of Mongolia, and the complex rhythms of the Arabic and Hindu sphere” (Nettl, 1989). Albanian musicologists consider Albanian Iso-polyphonic singing to be purely Albanian, and Tole is dismissive of this Byzantine influence stating “iso was used in the songs of the Byzantine church, but it was not authentic. The scale used in Albanian polyphony is the pentatonic scale, differing from the chants of Byzantine music which applies modal scales” (Tole, Iso polifonia dhe monodia, 2007). It seems likely that Albanian polyphonic singing predates the borders that exist today. As Professor Eno Koco states in his paper ‘The Journey of the Vocal Ison’ “multipart singing in Albania is usually considered as an only Albanian phenomenon, whereas in Greece, it is thought of as being Greek. The Aromanians too believe that the multipart singing has generated from their tradition” (Koco, A Journey of the Vocal Ison). However, four voiced iso-polyphonic singing is not just uniquely Albanian but exclusive to the Labëri region of Southern Albania. Shetuni tells us “This type of music is completely absent in the regions of Toskëri, Myzeqe, and Chamëri, existing only in Labëri” (Shetuni, 2011).
The Toskëri region of Southern Albania is where the most basic form of Iso-polyphonic music can be found. Tole states “In Toskeria we encounter only two and three-voice iso-polyphonic song” and goes on to say “This is the basic form of Albanian polyphony, where the parts are identifiable not only from the standpoint of melody, but also distinguished by the role that they play” (Tole, Encyclopaedia of Albanian folk iso-polyphony, 2014). Two part iso-polyphonic songs are performed by just two people, ‘the taker’ and ‘the turner’. Whilst there is no singer, or singers, performing an accompanying drone, Tole tells us they are still considered iso-polyphonic “the fundamental form consists of two vocal parts, with a hidden iso accompanying the melodic development of the voices… therefore, is only apparently duophonic, but actually operates as a ‘concealed three-part’ type, which has been “reduced to two parts.” (Tole, Encyclopaedia of Albanian folk iso-polyphony, 2014). In three part iso-polyphonic songs, the taker and turner are joined by the drone, the iso, is performed by a group of people. Shetuni describes their roles as follows “The taker is more than just the first person to begin singing. He or she dictates the tone, emotions, and overall melody throughout the song. In Tosk music, the turner is usually a variation in the melodic line of the taker. The drone provides a background foundation consisting of a one note melodic line” (Shetuni, 2011)”
Both Tosk and Lab Iso-polyphonic music share many similarities in terms of their use of multiple voices, harmonies, and lyrics that often reflect on traditional Albanian culture and history. They also have some distinct differences. Tosk iso-polyphonic music is richer melodically compared to Lab traditional music and also differs in that it is free or measurable meter and rhythm. However, both Tosk and Lab iso-polyphonic music is based on a pentatonic modal/tonal system and is generally sung acapella. Shetuni suggests the reason for this “The drone holds the mode/scale steady, helps to integrate the other melodic lines, and augments the emotional punch of the melody. Both Tosk and Lab traditional music are considered to have the drone serve as their “instrumental accompaniment””. This does not mean instruments never accompany Tosk iso-polyphonic performers. Shetuni goes on to say “Although rare, songs with continuous instrumental presence do exist in the Tosk dialect. These songs begin with an instrumental introduction consisting of clarinet, violin, lute, and sometimes tambourine. Following the introduction, vocals begin, and only one instrument, the lute, continues the rest of the song.” (Shetuni, 2011)
The iso-polyphonic music of Labëria is the undoubted jewel in Albania’s crown. It is the music that was proclaimed a masterpiece of the oral and intangible heritage of mankind” by UNESCO in 2005 (Tole, Albanian folk iso-polyphony, n.d.). Structurally, four-part Lab polyphony has the same features as three-part. The ‘new-comer’ is the third part, frequently named “hedhes” (“the thrower”)… Gjirocaster, home to the annual Albanian Folk Festival is considered by many to be the birthplace of iso-polyphony and is where this kind of third part has a strong tradition. Singers of the town have formulated its task as follows: “The throwing, .., helps the one who “takes it” to breathe. It helps the “marris” so that his voice is not damaged.” (Ahmedaja & Haid, 2008). It is integral to the culture of Labëria, Tole tells us “The singing of polyphony itself is perceived by the people as mysterious and instinctive, and in general as a phenomenon that internally reflects nature, the voice, the night, and the soil of Labëria” and adds “Polyphony is sung at weddings, wakes, various festivals, before and after contests, in the countryside, etc. Finally, everyone knows that when two Labs get together they break into song” (Tole, Encyclopaedia of Albanian folk iso-polyphony, 2014). From my own travels in Albania, I can attest to this. When I was recording the Iso-polyphonic group ‘Thesaret Labe’ at the castle in Gjirocaster in December 2022, the castle cleaners formed their own group and performed for us whilst we were setting up to record.
The Labëri polyphonic song repertoire includes love songs and strong epic-lyrical songs, examples of which can be found in Appendix 1, and include two and three part iso-polyphonic songs as well as their unique four part songs. As Shetuni tells us “As is the case with Tosk polyphonic music, two and three melodic line polyphony consists of taker and turner, and taker, turner, and drone, respectively” (Shetuni, 2011). Each area of Labëria has its own style of Iso-polyphonic singing but it is the area around Gjirocaster that is best known for its iso-polyphonic singing tradition. This is likely because they are performed in the unique four part style in a traditional way. Mahony notes “The polyphonic songs of this town consist of four parts and they are known as “the old men songs” (pleqerishte). The style of singing reflects a very old singing style which has remained unchanged for many generations” (Mahony, 2011). This Gjirokastër “old men’s” style…is sung with a strenuous tone showing a sustained and wordless iso” (Koco, Making Multipart Music: Case Studies). And as Tole tells us “[Gjirocaster] even now continues to develop and refine the polyphonic song tradition” (Tole, Encyclopaedia of Albanian folk iso-polyphony, 2014).
The ffusion project
My original intention when developing the ffusion project was to explore and understand the structure of the iso-polyphonic singing style of the Labëria region of Southern Albania in order to better integrate or fuse this unique traditional style of music with my own music. Producing the collection of tracks that I have released as ‘the ffusion project – Albanian Polyphony’ would not have been possible with this research into the history and origins of Albanian traditional music. I have had the opportunity to record and interview iso-polyphonic singers in Albania, as well as historian Fitim Çaushi, and they have all helped me better understand the structure, tonality and modal basis of the music which has been so beneficial when producing my own interpretations of the iso-polyphonic tracks I recorded in Albania. As I state in my conclusion to this paper, the future of iso-polyphonic singing is uncertain, but whatever the future holds I am proud that I have been able, with ‘the ffusion project’, to contribute to that future and build an enduring connection with the musicians and singers of Albania.
Conclusion
The tradition of folk singing in Albania is undoubtedly both rich and diverse and is an important part of the oral heritage of both Albania and the Balkans and is a testament to the resilience and creativity of its people. Despite centuries of foreign rule, this unique musical tradition has endured and continues to be celebrated today. From the monodic and ‘Kânge Kreshnike’ styles of the Northern Gheg area to the iso-polyphonic style of the Tosk and Lab areas of the south this music is not just a part of Albania’s cultural heritage it is an integral part of Albanian people lives. The proclamation by UNESCO in respect of Lab four-part iso-polyphony has helped ensure the future of this unique style of music however, the same is not necessarily true for the traditional music of the other areas of Albania. There is some discussion currently amongst ethnomusicology scholars regarding the possibility of petitioning UNESCO to include the ‘Kënge Kreshnike’ on the Intangible Heritage List (Scaldaferri N, 2016) which, if successful, would offer some protection to this music and help ensure its future. According to UNESCO, over the last few decades, a modest rise in cultural tourism and a growing interest by ethnomusicologists in this unique folk tradition has contributed to the revival of Albanian iso-polyphony. “However, the tradition is adversely affected by poverty, the absence of legal protection, and the lack of financial support for practitioners, threatening the transmission of the vast repertoire of songs and techniques. The rural exodus of young people to the bigger cities and abroad in search of jobs compounds this danger. Given these conditions, at the present time, the transmission of this tradition is maintained through professional folk artists, rather than within the family structure.” (Tole, Albanian folk iso-polyphony, n.d.)
I will leave the last word to Fitim Çaushi “Its [future is] in doubt because the microenvironment that was its source is disappearing. The villages are disappearing, and the waters, and streams of the villages where people gathered are no more. The dinners are no more, as are the celebrations that happened in Labëri that were filled with singing. In the end, I’m very grateful for all the British research, and for what you are doing David” (Çaushi, Albanian polyphonic music, 2022).
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